Texas and Growth in the Postbellum Economy: Despite the Odds

Abstract

Economic growth during the postbellum period was particularly harsh in the South due to the “negative effects of the Civil War and slavery.” [1] According to Connolly, four factors led to the South reaching the turn of the century from the postbellum period as a low-skill, low-wage region: plantation legacy, education resistance, isolation of the labor market, and latecomer effects in reaching industrialization.[2] Economic development in Texas from 1860-1880 had a different set of circumstances and a growth in the sectors of the railroads and agriculture.[3] In Texas, hardships included the effects of the Civil War, ecological disasters (drought, floods, worms), and epidemics. In truth in Texas during Reconstruction, there was “much prosperity and significant economic development.”[4] Here is a comparison in Texas during the postbellum period in the railroad and agriculture sectors throughout the period from 1860-1980 to test the thesis that there was economic growth despite these hardships.

Methodology

Here is a regression model comparison of the railroad and agricultural industry throughout the period from 1860-1880, based on the work by Edmund Thornton Miller entitled “A Financial History of Texas” published by the University of Texas in 1916.[5]

Comparison

Herein is a comparison chart of the railroad and agriculture sectors throughout the period from 1860-1880 in Texas.

All industries here are on the rise from 1860 to 1870 to 1880. The only value that did not rise was the cash value of farms from 1860 to 1870. This trend is due to not only the Civil War, and loss of workers, but also due to weather conditions and epidemics in the years after the war. Between 1859 to 1869 in Texas, there were a series of droughts in the east, and floods and worms in central and southeast Texas.[6] Yellow Fever epidemics struck Texas rapidly in 1853, 1854, 1858, 1859, 1862, and 1867.[7]

In Texas agriculture from 1860 to 1870, the cash value of farms decreased but the percentage of improved land in farms and cotton production increased. In the Texas railroad industry from 1860 to 1870, the milage, manufacturing establishments, and manufacturing value of products increased. In Texas agriculture from 1870 to 1880, the cash value of farms, the percentage of improved land in farms, and livestock trade increased. In the Texas railroad industry from 1870 to 1880, the milage, manufacturing establishments, and manufacturing value of products increased.

Conclusion

Despite the economic hardship of the Civil War and the Reconstruction Era, weather incidents, and epidemics, Texas quickly recovered in both the agricultural and railroad sectors from 1860 to 1880.

[1]Larry Earl Adams, “Economic Development in Texas During Reconstruction, 1865-1875” (Denton, Texas, University of North Texas, 1980), 363, UNT Digital Library, https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc331534/.

[2]Michelle Connolly, “Human Capital and Growth in the Postbellum South: A Separate but Unequal Story,” The Journal of Economic History 64, no. 2 (2004): 367.

[3]Adams, “Economic Development in Texas During Reconstruction, 1865-1875,” iv.

[4]Adams, 201.

[5]Edmund Thornton Miller, A Financial History of Texas (University of Texas at Austin, 1916), https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/handle/2152/26568.

[6]Adams, “Economic Development in Texas During Reconstruction, 1865-1875,” 145–46.

[7]Penny Clark, “Yellow Fever,” in Handbook of Texas Online (Texas State Historical Association, April 2, 2020), https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/yellow-fever.

Bibliography

Adams, Larry Earl. “Economic Development in Texas During Reconstruction, 1865-1875.” University of North Texas, 1980. UNT Digital Library. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc331534/.

Clark, Penny. “Yellow Fever.” In Handbook of Texas Online. Texas State Historical Association, April 2, 2020. https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/yellow-fever.

Connolly, Michelle. “Human Capital and Growth in the Postbellum South: A Separate but Unequal Story.” The Journal of Economic History 64, no. 2 (2004): 363–99.

Miller, Edmund Thornton. A Financial History of Texas. University of Texas at Austin, 1916. https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/handle/2152/26568.

Research Topic

The research topic I have chosen for this class (HIUS 713) is the economic development of the Alabama-Coushatta Tribe of Texas from 1900-2023. I work at the Alabama-Coushatta Tribal Historical Preservation Office. They have undergone development in various industries from agriculture, lumber, tourism, and gaming. They have been through federal to state recognition, lost both, and gained back federal recognition. They have had to work for these recognitions and have traversed financial hardships in the interim periods. They are currently thriving and looking towards new developments in museum and tourism development. I hope to trace this timeline and the primary documents of development to show their perseverance through hardship, how they adapted, and how they have grown in recent years.

The Montgomery Family of Original Montgomery County Texas

Abstract

The tales of Texas pioneers are vast. The Montgomery Clan came to Texas starting in 1820 with the Long Expedition. They settled in Stephen F. Austin's Colony and fought in the Texas Revolution. Today, Montgomery County stands where they once lived. Their stories and times legend with those who fought for freedom in an inhospitable and often hostile climate. Our Montgomery family was a part of that story.

Blog Post

The Montgomery family first stepped foot in Texas from South Carolina, Tennessee, Alabama, and Arkansas with Andrew Montgomery and "expeditions" as early as 1820.[1] More than likely, these expeditions were a part of the Long Expedition of 1820.[2]

States the Andrew was in the Battle of San Jacinto and was in early expeditions of the country, some as early as 1820. Andrew Montgomery, “Petition for Augmentation of Land” (Texas, U.S., Memorials and Petitions, 1834-1929 - Ancestry.com, November 13, 1855), https://www.ancestry.com/discoveryui-content/view/179:2218?ssrc=pt&tid=161928586&pid=262496623246.

Andrew Montgomery was the son of William Montgomery (1772-1836) and the grandson of Andrew Ewing (or Ewin) (1740-1813),[3] who was a signer of the Cumberland Compact and the appointed clerk.[4] One of Andrew Ewing's other grandsons, the son of Edley Ewing who also came to Texas, James Ewing, would die at the Alamo.[5]

Andrew Ewing, a signer of the Cumberland Compact, was the grandfather of Andrew Montgomery. Richard Carlton Fulcher, 1770-1790 Census of the Cumberland Settlements: Davidson, Sumner, and Tennessee Counties (in What Is Now Tennessee) (Baltimore, Maryland: Genealogical Publishing Com, 1987), 35.

Gary Zobly's drawing of James Ewing (left) at the Alamo. Few know his true story. Find a Grave, “James L. Ewing (1812-1836),” Find a Grave, 2020, https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/8862246/james-l-ewing.

The family settled in the area of later Montgomery County (now comprised of portions of six counties: Montgomery, Grimes, Walker, Madison, San Jacinto, and Waller) prior to Stephen F. Austin's awarding of land grants in the area in the early 1830s.[6] The members of the family were many: William Montgomery, John Montgomery, and his sister Margaret Montgomery were of the elder generation of the group, the children of John Joseph Montgomery and Rachel Elizabeth Rush (sister of Benjamin Rush, signer of the Declaration of Independence).[7]

Rachel Rush, the sister of Benjamin Rush, a signer of the Declaration of Independence, married Joseph Montgomery. They were the parents of William and Margaret Montgomery who came to Texas in the 1820s. George Norbury MacKenzie, Colonial Families of the United States of America: In Which Is Given the History, Genealogy and Armorial Bearings of Colonial Families Who Settled in the American Colonies from the Time of the Settlement of Jamestown, 13th May, 1607, to the Battle of Lexington, 19th April, 1775, vol. 6 (Grafton Press, 1917), 407.

William Montgomery came as a widow to Texas in 1822[8] and brought his grown-up sons Andrew (married Mary Farris), Edley (married Emeline Farris), and John (Julia Robinson) as well as his daughters Elizabeth (married J.G.W Pierson), Mary Jane (married Franklin Greenwood), Anna, (married Joel Greenwood), and little Sarah (married John McGuffin). Margaret Montgomery came with her husband Owen Shannon and her children John (married Louisa Compton), Jacob (married Catherine Yoakum), Ruth (married James William Miller), Eleanor (married Jonas Harrison), and Nancy Hannah, (married Charles Garrett). Almost the adult children (save little Sarah) received land grants, daughters with their husbands, in Stephen F. Austin's Colony (in original Montgomery County).[9] Andrew Montgomery, my third great grandfather, was a government surveyor for the state of Coahuila and Texas during the Mexican period (1821-1836), along with my third great uncle J.G.W. Pierson.[10]

William Montgomery in Texas in 1822. B. B. Goodrich, “Montgomery County Clerk Returns 0000002” (Texas GLO, March 1838), https://s3.glo.texas.gov/ncu/SCANDOCS/archives_webfiles/arcmaps/webfiles/landgrants/PDFs/1/0/6/2/1062186.pdf.

Montgomery family land grants in Original Montgomery county see Texas Center for Regional Studies, “Montgomery,” Historical, Texas Center for Regional Studies, 2019, http://www.texascenterforregionalstudies.net/montgomery.html.

In the wake of the oncoming Texas Revolution, the provisional governor of Texas, James W. Robinson, wrote to J.G.W. Pierson (husband of Elizabeth Montgomery), to recall to him that his district had been surveyed by many of the citizens of Montgomery and Grimes Prairie and to bring them to the fight.[11] J. G. W. Pierson, Andrew Montgomery, and John Montgomery and well as their uncle Hezekiah Faris all fought in the Battle of San Jacinto on April 21, 1836.[12]

Roberston to Pierson, 4350. February 13, 1836. John H. Jenkins, Papers of the Texas Revolution, vol. 9 (Austin, TX: Presidial Press, 1973), 156–57, archive.texashistorytrust.org/view/862740855/.

There are many theories as to the naming of the town of Montgomery that was built where the old Montgomery family lived from the 1820s on: James Montgomery, Margaret Montgomery, William Montgomery, Andrew Montgomery and even our cousins General Richard Montgomery of the Revolutionary War or Lemuel Montgomery of the War of 1812. Some say it was named for Montgomery, Alabama (which was named for our cousin Lemuel). Whatever the case, the name of Montgomery is still spoken in these parts though they are long gone. There are many more stories, but in the end, the Montgomerys and their legacy are still remembered.

Andrew and Edley Montgomery, brothers, family photo files, both died in 1864 in Original Montgomery County. Edley Montgomery was one of the first Texas Rangers.

Today in 2023, as I write this, descendants of these colonists still live in the area where they settled so long ago. I am descended from William Montgomery, by his son Andrew, by his son John, by his son John Lee, by his son James Troy, by his son Robin Navarro, to me,a daughter, Joy Montgomery. I have kept my family name, as has my sister, and we are carrying on the history still today in preservation, restoration, and celebration in this land they call Texas.

Notes

[1] November 13, 1855. Andrew Montgomery writes for an augmentation of land after fighting at the battle of San Jacinto as a single but now married man. He cites the 23rd section of the "establishment of the General Land Office Act" to as for two-thirds labor of land. He states he was on expeditions in the country of Texas, some as early as 1820. Andrew Montgomery, “Petition for Augmentation of Land” (Texas, U.S., Memorials and Petitions, 1834-1929 - Ancestry.com, November 13, 1855), https://www.ancestry.com/discoveryui-content/view/179:2218?ssrc=pt&tid=161928586&pid=262496623246.

[2] The Long Expedition was an attempt by a group of Anglo-Americans to take over Texas from Spain in 1820. Harris Gaylord Warren, “Long Expedition,” in The Handbook of Texas (Texas Historical Association, July 19, 2017), https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/long-expedition.

[3]Richard Carlton Fulcher, 1770-1790 Census of the Cumberland Settlements: Davidson, Sumner, and Tennessee Counties (in What Is Now Tennessee) (Baltimore, Maryland: Genealogical Publishing Com, 1987), 35.

[4] Andrew Ewin, “Records of the Cumberland Association,” The American Historical Magazine and Tennessee Historical Society Quarterly 7, no. 2 (1902): 116.

[5]Find a Grave, “James L. Ewing (1812-1836),” Find a Grave, 2020, https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/8862246/james-l-ewing.

[6]B. B. Goodrich, “Montgomery County Clerk Returns 0000002” (Texas GLO, March 1838), https://s3.glo.texas.gov/ncu/SCANDOCS/archives_webfiles/arcmaps/webfiles/landgrants/PDFs/1/0/6/2/1062186.pdf.

[7]George Norbury MacKenzie, Colonial Families of the United States of America: In Which Is Given the History, Genealogy and Armorial Bearings of Colonial Families Who Settled in the American Colonies from the Time of the Settlement of Jamestown, 13th May, 1607, to the Battle of Lexington, 19th April, 1775, vol. 6 (Grafton Press, 1917), 407.

[8]Goodrich, “Montgomery County Clerk Returns 0000002,” 8.

[9] Original Montgomery County, Texas broke off from Washington Municipality in 1837. The list of citizens of Washington Municipality as of 1836 is listed in: Worth S. Ray, Austin Colony Pioneers: Including the History of Bastrop, Fayette, Grimes, Montgomery, and Washington Counties and Their Earliest Settlers. (Austin, TX: the Author, 1949), 21–24. To see the image of the Montgomery land grants in Original Montgomery county see Texas Center for Regional Studies, “Montgomery,” Historical, Texas Center for Regional Studies, 2019, http://www.texascenterforregionalstudies.net/montgomery.html.

[10]Sue Watkins, ed., One League to Each Wind: Accounts of Early Surveying in Texas (Austin, TX: Von-Boeckmann-Jones, 1964), 31.

[11] Roberston to Pierson, 4350. February 13, 1836. H. Jenkins, Papers of the Texas Revolution, vol. 9 (Austin, TX: Presidial Press, 1973), 156–57, archive.texashistorytrust.org/view/862740855/.

[12] While the soldiers listed in the book are accurate, many of the biographies, such as that of Andrew Montgomery, are not. The book states that Andrew was living in Mississippi in 1843, however, we know he never lived there in later years. Andrew's 1855 petition attests to his attendance at San Jacinto. Sam Houston Dixson and Louis Wiltz Kemp, The Heroes of San Jacinto (Houston, Texas: Anson Jones Press, 1932), 403.

Bibliography

Dixson, Sam Houston, and Louis Wiltz Kemp. The Heroes of San Jacinto. Houston, Texas: Anson Jones Press, 1932. https://www.familysearch.org/library/books/viewer/772973/?offset=0#page=2&viewer=picture&o=search&n=0&q=montgomery.

Ewin, Andrew. “Records of the Cumberland Association.” The American Historical Magazine and Tennessee Historical Society Quarterly 7, no. 2 (1902): 114–35.

Find a Grave. “James L. Ewing (1812-1836).” Find a Grave, 2020.

https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/8862246/james-l-ewing.

Fulcher, Richard Carlton. 1770-1790 Census of the Cumberland Settlements: Davidson, Sumner, and Tennessee Counties (in What Is Now Tennessee). Baltimore, Maryland: Genealogical Publishing Com, 1987.

Goodrich, B. B. “Montgomery County Clerk Returns 0000002.” Texas GLO, March 1838. https://s3.glo.texas.gov/ncu/SCANDOCS/archives_webfiles/arcmaps/webfiles/landgrants/PDFs/1/0/6/2/1062186.pdf.

Jenkins, John H. Papers of the Texas Revolution. Vol. 9. 9 vols. Austin, TX: Presidial Press, 1973. archive.texashistorytrust.org/view/862740855/.

MacKenzie, George Norbury. Colonial Families of the United States of America: In Which Is Given the History, Genealogy and Armorial Bearings of Colonial Families Who Settled in the American Colonies from the Time of the Settlement of Jamestown, 13th May, 1607, to the Battle of Lexington, 19th April, 1775. Vol. 6. 7 vols. Baltimore, Maryland: Grafton Press, 1917.

Montgomery, Andrew. “Petition for Augmentation of Land.” Texas, U.S., Memorials and Petitions, 1834-1929 - Ancestry.com, November 13, 1855. https://www.ancestry.com/discoveryui-content/view/179:2218?ssrc=pt&tid=161928586&pid=262496623246.

Ray, Worth S. Austin Colony Pioneers: Including the History of Bastrop, Fayette, Grimes, Montgomery, and Washington Counties and Their Earliest Settlers. Austin, TX: the Author, 1949.

Texas Center for Regional Studies. “Montgomery.” Historical. Texas Center for Regional Studies, 2019. http://www.texascenterforregionalstudies.net/montgomery.html.

Warren, Harris Gaylord. “Long Expedition.” In The Handbook of Texas. Texas Historical Association, July 19, 2017. https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/long-expedition.

Watkins, Sue, ed. One League to Each Wind: Accounts of Early Surveying in Texas. Austin, TX: Von-Boeckmann-Jones, 1964.

Christianity in the Early American Republic: Catharine Brown, Cherokee Missionary

Abstract

The "Sabin American" database in the Jerry Falwell Library has numerous sources on Christianity in American history. One of these sources relates to the "Memoir of Catharine Brown" telling the story of a Cherokee girl who attended the Brainerd Mission to the Cherokee the first year it opened in 1817 and went on to become an instructor herself before passing away in 1823. The memoirs discuss the mission of the missions to Indians, under the direction of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (ABCFM). She was the first but not the last to be led to Christ at the school and went on to be an instructor in her own right at a new girls' mission school at Creek-Path. Eventually, her entire family became Christians, and her brother went on to study at the mission school in Cornwall with several other future distinguished Cherokee leaders. Images include the ABCFM mission map in the Cherokee Country,[1] the Brainerd Mission manuscript plan,[2] the Brainerd Mission stamp,[3] and the Brainerd Mission woodcut.[4]

Joseph Tracy et al., History of American Missions to the Heathen, from Their Commencement to the Present Time (Worcester, Massachusetts: Spooner & Howland, 1840), 391.

Catharine Brown, Cherokee Missionary

The "Sabin American" database in the Jerry Falwell Library has numerous sources on Christianity in American history. One of these sources relates to the "Memoir of Catharine Brown" telling the story of a Cherokee girl who attended the Brainerd Mission to the Cherokee the first year it opened in 1817 and went on to become an instructor herself before passing away in 1823. Hers is a story of hope and joy despite her hardships and through her, we get a glimpse of her life. She was the first to be led to Christ at the mission and almost immediately led others in instruction, from her letters and diaries she was happiest at the school and did not want to leave it but her brief time away would lead to her briefly becoming an instructor at the Creek-Path school, before leaving to tend to her brother and eventually passing away of the same illness he suffered from in 1823.

Mary A. Wilder, “Manuscript Plan of the Brainerd Mission to the Cherokee” (Boston Rare Maps, 1821), https://bostonraremaps.com/inventory/manuscript-plan-of-the-brainerd-mission-to-the-cherokee/.

The memoirs discuss the mission of the missions to the Indians, under the direction of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions: "God in his providence has called us to labor in the great and good work of building up his kingdom among the Aborigines of this country".[5] Catharine Brown had a "tenderness of spirit...her chief object to do the will of God...in December 1817 she indulged a hope of pardon and acceptance through the Lord Jesus...she soon began to pray with her associates and to assist in teaching the Lord's prayer and the catechism...her desires for the salvation of her people were now strong and ardent."[6] She was the first Cherokee baptized by the missionaries of the board, eight months after the opening of the school at Brainerd, and by 1831, about one hundred Cherokees received baptism.[7]

In November of 1818, though she wanted to remain at Brainerd, she went with her parents to prepare for the journey to the Arkansas Territory: their home had been ravaged by white people.[8] She wrote in a later letter to Brainerd during this time, still expressing hope: "Dear friends, I weep...his ways are best, and he has graciously promised, that "all things shall work together for good to them that love him...it is not my wish to go to Arkansas, but God only knows what is best for me."[9] She returned to Brainerd in May of 1819.

Daughters of the American Revolution. Preservation of Historic Spots Committee, “Daughters of the American Revolution Request for Brainerd Mission Stamp Correspondence, Undated” (Correspondence. Image., Chattanooga, TN, 1935), Brainerd Mission commemorative stamp correspondence, petitions, and clippings, 1934-1935. Penelope Johnson Allen Papers. University of Tennessee at Chattanooga., https://digital-collections.library.utc.edu/digital/collection/p16877coll7/id/143/rec/37.

Catharine's brother, David Brown, was a member of the school and worked to assist Rev. D. S. Butrick in the creation of a Cherokee spelling book, later printed for the schools.[10] David went home to Creek-Path and prayed over and nursed his father in 1820, and soon thereafter the town headmen and chiefs were asking for a school to be stationed there.[11] David left for the foreign mission school in Cornwall, Connecticut later in 1820, there to attend the same school as other future leaders of the Cherokee Nation: Elias Boudinot, John Ridge, Leonard Hicks, James Fields, and John Vann.[12]

The school at Creek-Path was so well attended that the townspeople asked for a girl's school to be set up there and the Brainerd Mission sent Catharine Brown in May of 1820 to fulfill the role of an instructor there, at her hometown.[13] Her brother John became ill in July of 1822 and passed away on February 2 of 1823 during which time she nursed him and witnessed her brother and parents give their lives to Christ.[14] She would pass away in July of that same year still singing the praises of her Lord Jesus Christ: she took great delight in teaching, was very happy in her diary entries, and her greatest joy was in growing closer to her Savior.[15] This was the mission and the times of the ABCFM schools to the Cherokee from 1817-1838, forming future Cherokee Christian leaders: men and women to lead to the future.

Brainerd Mission, “Brainerd Mission Woodcut” (Still Image, Chattanooga, TN, 1838 1817), Brainerd Mission Photographs, 1817-1964. Penelope Johnson Allen Papers. University of Tennessee at Chattanooga., https://digital-collections.library.utc.edu/digital/collection/p16877coll7/id/44/.

[1]Joseph Tracy et al., History of American Missions to the Heathen, from Their Commencement to the Present Time (Worcester, Massachusetts: Spooner & Howland, 1840), 391.

[2]Mary A. Wilder, “Manuscript Plan of the Brainerd Mission to the Cherokee” (Boston Rare Maps, 1821), https://bostonraremaps.com/inventory/manuscript-plan-of-the-brainerd-mission-to-the-cherokee/.

[3]Daughters of the American Revolution. Preservation of Historic Spots Committee, “Daughters of the American Revolution Request for Brainerd Mission Stamp Correspondence, Undated” (Correspondence. Image., Chattanooga, TN, 1935), Brainerd Mission commemorative stamp correspondence, petitions, and clippings, 1934-1935. Penelope Johnson Allen Papers. University of Tennessee at Chattanooga., https://digital-collections.library.utc.edu/digital/collection/p16877coll7/id/143/rec/37.

[4]Brainerd Mission, “Brainerd Mission Woodcut” (Still Image, Chattanooga, TN, 1838 1817), Brainerd Mission Photographs, 1817-1964. Penelope Johnson Allen Papers. University of Tennessee at Chattanooga., https://digital-collections.library.utc.edu/digital/collection/p16877coll7/id/44/.

[5]Rufus Anderson, American Missionary Fellowship, and American Sunday-School Union. Committee of Publication, Memoir of Catharine Brown, a Christian Indian of the Cherokee Nation, Sabin Americana: History of the Americas, 1500-1926 (Philadelphia: American Sunday School Union, 1831), 20,

https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CY0110779733/SABN?sid=bookmark-SABN&xid=28bd5cec&pg=10.

[6]Anderson, American Missionary Fellowship, and American Sunday-School Union. Committee of Publication, 21.

[7]Anderson, American Missionary Fellowship, and American Sunday-School Union. Committee of Publication, 23.

[8]Anderson, American Missionary Fellowship, and American Sunday-School Union. Committee of Publication, 32, 41.

[9]Anderson, American Missionary Fellowship, and American Sunday-School Union. Committee of Publication, 38.

[10]Anderson, American Missionary Fellowship, and American Sunday-School Union. Committee of Publication, 42.

[11]Anderson, American Missionary Fellowship, and American Sunday-School Union. Committee of Publication, 43–44.

[12]Oklahoma Historical Society, “The Foreign Mission School at Cornwall, Connecticut,” Chronicles of Oklahoma 7, no. 3 (September 1929): 246.

[13]Anderson, American Missionary Fellowship, and American Sunday-School Union. Committee of Publication, Memoir of Catharine Brown, a Christian Indian of the Cherokee Nation, 49.

[14]Anderson, American Missionary Fellowship, and American Sunday-School Union. Committee of Publication, 71–75.

[15]Anderson, American Missionary Fellowship, and American Sunday-School Union. Committee of Publication, 79–82.

Bibliography

Anderson, Rufus, American Missionary Fellowship, and American Sunday-School Union. Committee of Publication. Memoir of Catharine Brown, a Christian Indian of the Cherokee Nation. Sabin Americana: History of the Americas, 1500-1926. Philadelphia: American Sunday School Union, 1831. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CY0110779733/SABN?sid=bookmark-SABN&xid=28bd5cec&pg=10.

Brainerd Mission. “Brainerd Mission Woodcut.” Still Image. Chattanooga, TN, 1838 1817. Brainerd Mission Photographs, 1817-1964. Penelope Johnson Allen Papers. University of Tennessee at Chattanooga. https://digital-collections.library.utc.edu/digital/collection/p16877coll7/id/44/.

Daughters of the American Revolution. Preservation of Historic Spots Committee. “Daughters of the American Revolution Request for Brainerd Mission Stamp Correspondence, Undated.” Correspondence. Image. Chattanooga, TN, 1935. Brainerd Mission commemorative stamp correspondence, petitions, and clippings, 1934-1935. Penelope Johnson Allen Papers. University of Tennessee at Chattanooga. https://digital-collections.library.utc.edu/digital/collection/p16877coll7/id/143/rec/37.

Foreman, Carolyn Thomas. “The Foreign Mission School at Cornwall, Connecticut.” Chronicles of Oklahoma 7, no. 3 (September 1929): 242–59.

Tracy, Joseph, Solomon Peck, Enoch Mudge, William Cutter, and Enoch Mack. History of American Missions to the Heathen, from Their Commencement to the Present Time. Worcester, Massachusetts: Spooner & Howland, 1840.

Wilder, Mary A. “Manuscript Plan of the Brainerd Mission to the Cherokee.” Boston Rare Maps, 1821. https://bostonraremaps.com/inventory/manuscript-plan-of-the-brainerd-mission-to-the-cherokee/